Kutsunga kwemaatomu uye mamorekuru. Definition ane atomu kusvikira 1932

Kutanga kubva kare nguva kusvika pakati muzana remakore rechi18, sainzi akanga dzaitongwa pfungwa kuti atomu - a PARTICIPLE kwenyaya kuti hazvigoni kupatsanurwa. Chirungu musayendisiti uye zvakasikwa, uye D. Dalton akapa tsanangudzo atomu sezvo duku chikamu makemikari Kufananidzira. MV Lomonosov mu mabhomba uye samolecular ayo nedzidziso akakwanisa kupa tsanangudzo atomu uye Morekuru. Akanga nechokwadi kuti Morekuru, yaakakudanirai "corpuscles", rinoumbwa "zvinhu" - maatomu - uye vari kugara zvitange.

D. I. Mendeleev aidavira kuti ichi subunit zvinhu anoumba zvinhu nyika, anoramba zvose ehupfumi dzayo chete kana hazvina pasi weboka. Munyaya ino, isu kutsanangura chinhu sechinhu Microcosm pamusoro atomu, uye kudzidza zvivako zvayo.

Background pakati dzidziso mabhomba mamiriro

Muzana remakore rechi19, chichiri kuzivikanwa sezvo mashoko pamusoro indivisibility ari atomu. Masayendisiti Most vaidavira kuti tudonhwe rimwe kwemakemikari chinhu chero zvaita hazvigoni kuva maatomu vamwe zvinhu. pfungwa idzi dzaiva hwaro pamusoro rakanga yakavakirwa tsanangudzo imwe atomu kusvikira 1932. Mukupera kwezana remakore rechi19 mune zvesayenzi takaitwa dzinokosha zvakawanwa kuti vakachinja maonero ichi. Chokutanga, muna 1897 ari yefizikisi British J. J. Thomson akanga vakawana Erekitironi. Izvi unopfuura achinja pfungwa masayendisiti 'pamusoro indivisible chikamu makemikari maatomu akafanana.

Sei kuratidza kuti atomu yakaoma mamiriro

Kunyange asati kuwanikwa Erekitironi , masayendisiti vachibvumirana vanobvuma kuti maatomu vane mhosva. Zvadaro, akanga akawanikwa kuti maerekitironi vari nyore kupatsanurwa pane chimwe vaida mushonga maatomu akafanana. Vanogona kuwanikwa murazvo, vari vatakuri Magetsi, ivo kusunungura zvinhu munguva X-ray nemwaranzi.

Asi kana maerekitironi inhengo zvose pasina chaakasiya; uye okusafarira mhosva maatomu, saka, nenzira imwe atomu pane zvimwe zvacho zviri chokwadi kuti kupomera akanaka, zvimwe maatomu aisazova electrically kwazvakarerekera. Kuti abatsire kukanganisika sechivako atomu yakabatsira kutanga chaiko sezvo radioactivity. Yakapa yakarurama yeshoko atomu iri wefizikisi, uye ipapo kemisitiri.

The asingaoneki mwaranzi

French yefizikisi A. Becquerel ndiye akatanga kurondedzera Chiitiko ose anobuda maatomu zvimwe zvinhu zvine maatomu akafanana, nemaziso mwaranzi asingaoneki. Ivo ionize mhepo chipiwe acho, achiita blackening pamusoro Photographic kwamahwendefa. Gare gare, Curies uye Rutherford vakawana kuti radioactive zvinhu tinoshandurirwa maatomu nevamwe zvine maatomu akafanana (akadai uranium exchange - neptunium).

Radioactive nemwaranzi iri nonuniform mu sezvamunoita: Arifa nezvimedu, Beta nezvimedu, wegamma mwaranzi. Nokudaro, Chiitiko pamusoro radioactivity kwakaratidza kuti periodic table nezvimedu vane kunzwisisa maumbirwo. Izvi zvakakonzera kuchinja akaita tsanangudzo atomu. Chii zvacho chiri atomu, wakapiwa Rutherford vakawana itsva zvesayenzi maidi? Mhinduro yomubvunzo uyu chaiva yaida womuenzaniso nyanzvi kwenyukireya pamusoro atomu, maererano iyo yakapoteredza chokwadi-mhosva neerekitironi maerekitironi kutama.

Kuzvipokanidza Rutherford mhando

Dzidziso musayendisiti, pasinei kwayo hunoshamisa hunhu, asingagoni chinangwa kutsanangura atomu. Her zvakabudiswa yaitipikisa nemitemo inokosha wethermodynamics, maererano iyo yose maerekitironi orbiting ari nuclei vanorasikirwa simba ravo uye, sezvo zvingadaro, pakupedzisira kuti umuuraye. Atomu pachinhu ichi nyaya rakaparadzwa. Izvi chaizvoizvo handizvo, sezvo mishonga nezvimedu kubva yavari aita, zviripo zvakasikwa kwenguva yakareba. Zvakatooma kutsanangura atomu kutsunga kwakadaro kwakavakirwa dzidziso Rutherford, uyewo Chiitiko kuti kunoitika apo kupfuura inopisa nyore zvinhu kuburikidza diffraction nesefa. Pashure mabhomba spectra kuumbwa panguva imwe chete kuva Linear chimiro. Izvi yaipesana chete Rutherford muenzaniso atomu, maererano izvo chakarondedzera aizofanira kuva chichiitwa. Maererano Dzidziso quantum Vanamakanika, maerekitironi aripo musimboti zvisina yoku sezvo nguva zvinhu uyewo vane chimiro Erekitironi gore.

Vazhinji arambe achirema kwayo mune imwe locus nzvimbo yakapoteredza musimboti, uye ari kuonekwa nzvimbo munhu PARTICIPLE pane imwe nguva. Uyewo, akanga akawanikwa kuti atomu, maerekitironi vari akarongwa akaturikidzana. Kuwanda akaturikidzana zvinogona tsunga nokuziva kuwanda nguva apo chinhu chiri Periodic D. I. Mendeleeva System. Somuenzaniso, phosphorus atomu rine 15 maerekitironi uye ane nhatu simba mumatunhu. The chakarurama, iro kuwanda simba siyana anonzi wechikoro quantum nhamba.

Rakavakwa experimentally kuti simba zvakadini maerekitironi, raiva pedyo chinoumba, vane rakadzika simba. Mumwe simba goko rakakamurwa Sub-zvese, uye ivowo, pamusoro orbitals. Maerekitironi chiri panzvimbo orbitals siyana vane makore chimiro (s, peji, D, f).

Pachishandiswa zvataurwa, zvinoreva kuti pezvakaita Erekitironi gore havagoni kuva zvemasanga. Zvinonzi zvachose akatsunga maererano orbital quantum nhamba. We wedzera kuti mamiriro enyika Erekitironi kusvika particulate iri nemaonero netsika maviri - rinobva uye kuruka quantum nhamba. Chokutanga inobva Schrödinger mukana wokuti vanhu vanga uye kuratidza spatial wezwi iri Erekitironi gore pachishandiswa zvitatu-dimensionality edu nyika. The paakati rechipiri - kuwanda kuruka pairi kuziva Erekitironi wacho majana kumativi akabatana kwayo kana pakaunda-Kutenderera.

Yawanikwa Nyuturoni

Kuburikidza nebasa D. Chadwick, vakavapfigira 1932, yakapiwa itsva tsanangudzo atomu iri kemisitiri uye wefizikisi. In kuedza kwavo kwesayenzi akaratidza kuti ari cleavage kunoitika polonium nemwaranzi anokonzerwa nezvimedu vasina muripo, mukanyiwa 1,008665. A idzva PARTICIPLE zvepakutanga ainzi ari Nyuturoni. Her Kuwanikwa uye kudzidza zvivako zvayo akabvumira masayendisiti Soviet V. Gapon uye Ivanenko kuumba idzva dzidziso sechivako maatomu musimboti, rine protons uye neutrons.

Maererano matsva, kuziva fuma aiva zvinotevera atomu pave STRUCTURAL chairema makemikari vanzwe, zvinosanganisira panozogadzirika ine protons, neutrons uye maerekitironi uchifamba akapoteredza. Kuwanda zvakanaka inoramba iri musimboti anogara akaenzana ordinal nhamba kwemakemikari chinhu periodic ino.

Gare gare Professor Zhdanov ari kuedza ake akasimbisa kuti pasi pokudzora rakaoma yepasi pose mwaranzi, mabhomba nuclei vari rwakakamukana protons uye neutrons. Uyezve, zvave zvakaratidza kuti mauto vakabata zvokutanga nezvimedu izvi vari musimboti, ndiwo simba-nyanyisa chaizvo. Vanoshandisa pfupi chaizvo madaro (pakati sezvakarayirwa 10 ^-23 cm), inonzi enyukireya. Sezvambotaurwa, rakanyorwa MV Lomonosov akakwanisa kupa tsanangudzo atomu uye Morekuru pachishandiswa nesayenzi chokwadi anozivikanwa naye.

Parizvino kuzivikanwa funga zvinotevera muenzaniso: atomu rine neerekitironi maerekitironi zvinofamba kumativi ari munzira zvachose rinotsanangurwa - orbitals. Maerekitironi panguva kuratidza kuti zvivako zvose zvacho uye mafungu, kureva, vane Dual hunhu. Musimboti ane atomu iri pfungwa zvinenge zvose zvayo vakawanda. Inoitwa protons uye neutrons chokuita nemauto zvenyukireya.

Kana zvichibvira kuyera atomu

Zvakaratidza kuti umwe atomu ane vakawanda. Somuenzaniso, zviri rehydrogen 1,67h10 ^-24 akanga kunyange zvakaoma kufungidzira duku sei kukosha ichi. Kuti tiwane kurema chinhu, regai kushandisa chikero, uye oscillator, inova kabhoni nanotube. Kuverenga kurema atomu uye Morekuru yamunenge kwazvo ndiye hama uremu. Zvinoratidza kuti kakawanda kurema morekuru kana ane atomu kupfuura 1/12 pakati kabhoni atomu, inova 1,66h10 ^-27 makirogiramu. Hama mabhomba vakawanda vari kupiwa periodic table kwemakemikari okunze, uye havana divi.

Masayendisiti vanonyatsoziva kuti maatomu kurema makemikari Kufananidzira - ndiwo avhareji vakawanda nhamba isotopes. Rinooneka, mune hunhu mumwe chairema makemikari chingasataurwa vane makore akasiyana. Saka mhosva yacho nuclei ose STRUCTURAL PARTICIPLE kwakadaro chete.

Masayendisiti akawana kuti isotopes yakasiyana nenhamba neutrons vari neerekitironi akamurairawo nuclei navo zvakafanana. Somuenzaniso, imwe kuiisa chlorine atomu, kuva murwi 35 mabhati 18 neutrons uye 17 protons, uye ane guru 37 - 20 protons uye 17 neutrons. Vazhinji zvine maatomu akafanana zviri wemisanganiswa ose isotopes. Somuenzaniso, zviri nyore zvinhu zvakadai potassium, argon, okisijeni iri kwayo sezvamunoita maatomu vaimiririra 3 zvakasiyana isotope.

Kutsunga atomicity

Rine mhirikiro dzakawanda. Funga zvinorehwa ichi izwi iri kemisitiri. Kana maatomu ane makemikari Kufananidzira anogona kanenge kwekanguva zviripo ndoga, asingadi vanowanzotevedzera kuumba mamwe kunzwisisa nezvimedu - mamorekuru, ipapo tichiti vakadaro zvinhu zvine maatomu yakarongeka. Somuenzaniso, multi-dariro chlorination maitiro methane. Zvinonzi zvinowanzoshandiswa Organic chakaita zvokugadzirwa kemisitiri nokuda chikuru halogen nomukaka: dichloromethane, carbon tetrachloride. Zvinonzi akatsemura kuiisa chlorine mamorekuru kuti maatomu ane yakakwirira reactivity. Vanoparadza Sigma zvisungo zviri methane Morekuru, ichipa nengetani kuzvitsinhanisa maitiro.

Mumwe muenzaniso makemikari kwacho ane zvikuru muna indasitiri - kushandiswa rehydrogen peroxide sechinhu disinfectant uye bleaching mumiririri. Kutsunga mabhomba okisijeni sechinhu cleavage chigadzirwa rehydrogen peroxide kunoitika mumasero zvose mhenyu (parutivi enzayemu catalase), uye murabhoritari. Mabhomba okisijeni qualitatively nemaonero ayo yakakwirira antioxidant zvivako uye kugona kwavo kuparadza pathogenic vamiririri: Mabhakitiriya, notumwe vavo spores.

How hamvuropu renyukireya

Hatina kare akawanikwa kuti STRUCTURAL chairema makemikari Kufananidzira ane kunzwisisa maumbirwo. Around ari chokwadi-mhosva neerekitironi nezvimedu dzitendererane kunaka maerekitironi. The Nobel Prize Niels Bohr, kwakavakirwa quantum yokuti chiedza, wakasika dzidziso, sezvamakaropafadzwa characterization uye kuziva kwemaatomu ndeinotevera: maerekitironi kungopembera musimboti chete pane dzimwe nzira wakaiswa muchiitiko ichi regai tichiratidza simba. Bohr, masayendisiti zvakaratidza kuti inoramba iri microworld, izvo zvinosanganisira maatomu uye mamorekuru vasingateereri mitemo ichiri kushanda mitumbi guru - anoramba macrocosm.

The nemamiriro Erekitironi anoshongwa pakati particulates kwave akadzidza mu mapepa ari quantum wefizikisi masayendisiti akadai koira, Pauli Klechkovskii. Sezvo zvikazikamwa kuti maerekitironi kuti rotational inofamba kumativi musimboti hakusi runobva, asi pane dzimwe nzira ngadzirambe. Pauli akawana kuti mukati rimwe simba pamwero pa nerimwe orbitals S ayo, p, D, f mune zvemagetsi masero rirege anopfuura maviri nezvimedu nhingi mhosva pamusoro pakatarisana kuruka mutengo + ½ uye - ½.

Kutonga koira kwakaita akatsanangura sei kuti kuzadza Erekitironi orbitals pamwe chete simba revarombo.

Aufbau nheyo, kunonziwo utongi N + L, tsanangura sei akazara orbitals multielectron maatomu (zvinhu 5, 6, 7 zvinogara). Zvose pamusoro regularities sehofisi yokungotaura hwaro zvine maatomu akafanana zvakasikwa pachishandiswa Dmitriem Mendeleevym.

oxidation dhigirii

Chinhu chinokosha mafungiro ari kemisitiri uye rinotsanangura mamiriro ane atomu mune morekuru. The ano tsanangudzo ukuru oxidation pakati maatomu ari sezvinotevera: mhosva iri riine maatomu ari Morekuru, iro rinowanikwa inobva pfungwa morekuru ane chete Ionic sezvamunoita.

The oxidation kungaratidzwa nechimwe integer kana fractional nhamba, akanaka, kunaka kana razero tsika. In maatomu dzakawanda zvine maatomu akafanana zvine akawanda oxidation inoti. Somuenzaniso, senitrogen ndiyo -3, -2, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5. Asi izvozvo ichocho, zvakadai fluorine, yose zvayo yeimwe ane chete oxidation wehurumende yakaenzana -1. Kana ngachipiwe nyore fuma, ayo oxidation mamiriro razero. Izvi makemikari zvizhinji yakakodzera kushandisa kuti kupatsanura pakati zvinhu uye kurondedzera zvivako zvavo. Kazhinji, ari oxidation dhigirii of kemisitiri yakashandiswa rakamiswa equations redox zvavaifunga.

The ehupfumi kwemaatomu

Nemhaka Zvakawanikwa quantum wefizikisi, yazvino tsanangudzo atomu, iyo uchifungidzira Ivanenko uye Gapon E, vaisanganisa nemashoko anotevera zvesayenzi chokwadi. Sechivako ane mabhomba neerekitironi haina kushanduka panguva nemakemikari. The shanduko kunokanganisa mira Erekitironi orbitals chete. mamiriro avo anogona kunzi yakawanda mumuviri makemikari zvivako zviri zvinhu. Kana Erekitironi inosiya mira muchadenga uye mberi orbital ane yepamusoro simba atomu yakadaro inonzi kufara.

Zvinofanira kucherechedzwa kuti maerekitironi haagoni kuva refu pamusoro izvi asiri chinoumba orbitals nguva. Tichidzokera ayo mira muchadenga, kuti Erekitironi inongorira ari quantum hwesimba. Kudzidza zvechadenga STRUCTURAL vamapoka zvine maatomu akafanana sezvo Erekitironi sungano, electronegativity, ionization simba akadaro, akabvumira masayendisiti kwete chete kuti kutsanangura atomu sechinhu chinokosha PARTICIPLE Microcosm, asiwo akavabvumira kutsanangura mano maatomu vaite yakatsiga uye zvinoshingaira nani. samolecular ezvinhu nyaya, mumwe zvinobvira zvakaipira kusika chero kugadzikana namakemikari zvisungo: Ionic, covalent-polar uye apolar, anyatsoronga-acceptor (sezvo covalent chokuedza marudzi) uye M etallicheskoy. Yokupedzisira anosarudza kukosha chaiko uye makemikari zvivako chainge chakagadzirwa nesimbi.

Rakavakwa experimentally kuti kukura ane atomu anogona siyana. All achaenderana Morekuru nayo iripowo. Kuburikidza X-ray diffraction kuongorora anogona ngaaverenge kure pakati maatomu ari makemikari remubatanidzwa uyewo kudzidza nharaunda STRUCTURAL maatomu akafanana chikwata. Pakuva mapatani kwokuchinja radii of maatomu zviri nguva kana boka zvine maatomu akafanana, zvinokwanisika kuti kufanotaura dzavo zvivako mumuviri nemakemikari. Somuenzaniso, mune nguva pamwe kuwedzera mutengo mabhomba musimboti wavo radii kuderera ( "compression atomu"), uye saka zinyekenyeke esimbi ehupfumi ari yeimwe, uye nonmetallic yakakura.

Saka, zivo nemamiriro atomu anogona kuona zvakarurama mumuviri uye zvemakemikari zvivako zviri zvinhu zvose zvinosanganisirwa periodic mamiriro okunze.