Kutonga kufunga. Chii kutongwa, mhando kwokutonga

Kutongwa iri muchimiro mafungiro, kusimbisa kana kuramba chinhu nezvokuvapo zvinhu, asi anobatanidza pakati pavo avo zvivako, uyewo ukama pakati zvinhu.

Mienzaniso mashoko: "The Volga runoyerera muGungwa reCaspian," "AS Pushkin akanyora nhetembo "The Bronze webhiza", "Siberian ingwe kuchitaurwa muna Red Book," etc.

Nemamiriro mutongo

Kutonga zvinosanganisira zvinotevera zvinhu: nyaya, Predicate, uye shwashwa quantifier.

1. Subject (Lat subjektum -. «Pane») - kuti, sezvakanyorwa pakutongwa, nyaya yacho ( «S»).
2. The Predicate (Latin praedicatum -. «Said") - kupangidza chinhu Tag, zvinotaurwa panyaya kutongwa ( "P").
3. Tsapo - nhamba pakati nyaya ( «S») uye Predicate ( "P"). Anosarudza kuvapo / kusavapo nyaya imwe pfuma inoratidzwa somunhu Predicate. Zvimwe rinoreva, uye anoratidza kuva "nokuputsanya" kana mazwi "mumwe" ( "haisi"), "ane", "vane", "fuma", uye vamwe.
4. Quantifier (quantifier shoko) inorondedzera yezvinoreva pfungwa, kuti izvo nyaya yacho mutongo. It akamira pamberi yacho, asi ingava ndisipo pakutonga. Runotaurwa nemashoko akadai sokuti "zvose", "vazhinji", "vamwe", "kwete", "kwete", uye vamwe.

Vechokwadi nevenhema mashoko

Kutonga ichokwadi panyaya paine chiratidzo, kuti zvivako uye ukama zvinhu anotenderwa / akaramba pakutonga, zvechokwadi. Somuenzaniso: "Vose Inomedza - shiri", "9 anopfuura 2" uye zvichingodaro ..

Kana mashoko ari huri kutonga hakusi kwechokwadi, isu patinenge tiine pfungwa yenhema 'zuva inotenderera Earth, "" A churu iron zvairema kupfuura kilogram nedonje "nemamwe kururamisirwa vari hwaro zvakarurama pfungwa ..

Zvisinei, kuwedzera kune mbiri-vaikoshesa kufunga, umo kururamisira kunogona kunge chokwadi kana nhema, kunewo Multi-dimensional zvisingarambiki. Maererano ayo mashoko, kutongwa kungava achiri isingagari. Kunyanya nezvezvitadzo remangwana munhu kutonga, "Mangwana chinoitika / zvikasaitika hondo wengarava" (Aristotle, "On kududzirwa"). Kana taifunga kuti iri pfungwa wechokwadi, mangwana gungwa hondo hazvigoni kuitika. Naizvozvo, zvinokosha kuti zviitike. Kana vakutarisire: vachiti kutongwa iripo nguva nhema, isu saka kuita zvakakodzera hazvibviri ramangwana gungwa kurwa.

Kutonga pamusoro mhando chemutsara

Sezvo chikazozikamwa, rudzi mashoko mhando nhatu zvirevo: declarative, kugadzikana uye kubvunza. Somuenzaniso, mutsetse "Ndinoyeuka chaizvo nguva" rinoreva mhando nhoroondo. Hazvina here zvinoratidza kuti kutonga kwakadaro kwaizoratidzawo Aisanganisira. Rine mashoko zvakananga, maererano chiitiko chaicho.

Uyewo, iyo interrogative mutsara chine mubvunzo, kuwana mhinduro: "Chii Ramangwana kwandiri," Panguva iyoyo hapatauri uye haarambi. Saka, kutaura kuti kutonga kwakadaro mubvunzo nepasipo. Interrogative chirevo, pfungwa, harina chero mutongo nokuti mubvunzo hazvigoni kusiyaniswa pahwaro chokwadi / falsity.

Chinokurudzira mhando mutongo achiumbwa nyaya apo pane chikonzero kuti chiito, kukumbira kurambidzwa: ". Simukai Muporofita, uye vid, uye teerera" Panyaya kutongwa, mu pfungwa vamwe vatsvakurudzi, havana huri vaitaura kwakadai. Vamwe vanodavira kuti zvakasiyana siyana modal kutonga.

yepamusoro mutongo

Maererano yepamusoro, kutonga vangava kutsigira (S ndiye P), uye kunaka (S haisi P). Kana sokukumbira mutongo, vachishandisa pasi Predicate dzakabatanidzwa imwe pfuma (-wa). Somuenzaniso: ". Leonardo da Vinci - Italian painter, mapurani, muvezi, musayendisiti, zvakasikwa uye muvambi uye munyori, chikuru mumiririri Renaissance unyanzvi"

In akaipa mutongo, Ukuwo, zviri pfuma zvabviswa nenyaya: ". Dzidziso yechi25 chakafanana James Vicary haana experimental chisimbiso"

quantitative characterization

Zvakatongwa kufunga zvingava zvakakurumbira (chokuita zvose zvinhu mukirasi iyi), oga (vamwe vavo) uye chikwata (kana kutaura nezvenyaya yacho, pane chete). Somuenzaniso, zvinogona nharo kuti kwakadaro pfungwa se "Usiku katsi ose pfumbu" kuchaita kureva chitarisiko, nokuti zvinokanganisa nhengo dzose katsi (nyaya kutongwa). Nokubvumira "Vamwe nyoka havasi muchetura" - muenzaniso private mutongo. Uyewo, kutongwa "Dnieper Wonderful mu wakadzikama ekunze" ari Unit, sezvo tiri kutaura pamusoro mumwe chaiyo rwizi, aivapo imwe chete chimiro.

Simple uye kunzwisisa nokutonga

Zvichienderana nemamiriro, kutonga angava rudzi nyore kana zvakaoma. Mamiriro nyore mutongo zvinosanganisira interconnected pfungwa mbiri (SP): «Book - zivo". Panewo kutonga chete pfungwa - apo wechipiri chete raireva: "Kwakanga kwava kusviba» (P).

Kuoma chimiro achiumbwa nokubatana mutongo akawanda nyore.

Kupatsanura nyore nokutonga

Simple kutonga kufunga angava zvinotevera siyana: attributive, kutonga ukama, tsika, modal.

Paunhu (pfuma-mutongo) akatuma tendero / nokumunyima pamusoro nyaya zvimwe zvivako (hunhu) mabasa. Kutonga ava categorical chimiro uye kwete akabvunza, "ari mammalian tsinga inoumbwa uropi uropi, musana uye ushamwari tsinga anotenderera."

In kutonga noruremekedzo maduramazwi ukama pakati zvinhu. Vanogona kuva spatio-rwepanyama chechinyorwa, causal, etc. Somuenzaniso :. "shamwari Old nani pane mbiri itsva", "rehydrogen vakareruka carbon dioxide inobvisa 22 nguva."

Tsika mutongo - Kutaura uku nezvokuvapo / kusavapo pamusoro penyaya (zvose zvokunyama uye yakanaka): "Hapana muporofita munyika yekwake", "The Moon ndiyo Satellite Nyika."

Modal pfungwa - mufananidzo tendero, raisanganisira kuvapo vamwe modal opareta (vanoda zvakanaka / zvakaipa, pavaiva anozivikanwa / isingazivikanwi, zvinonzi chinorambidzwa, ndinotenda, uye vamwe.). Somuenzaniso:

• "Russia anofanira kuitisa dzidzo kuchinja" (alethic modality - mukana, kudiwa chinhu).
• "Munhu wose ane kodzero omene" (deontic modality - tsika dzemunharaunda munzanga maitiro).
• "Kuregeredza wehurumende pfuma kunotungamirira kurasikirwa kwayo" (axiologic modality - chokuita zvinhu uye tsika).
• "Tinotenda yako mhosva" (epistemic modality - rakavimbika ruzivo).

Complex nokutonga uye mhando musoro connectives

Sezvambotaurwa, zvakaoma kutonga ine zvishomanana. Sezvo musoro kubatana pakati pavo vari nzira dzakadai:

• Pachiimbwa (a ʌ b - unobva kutonga). Kuranga conjuncts vane boka "uye", "Implementation kodzero uye rusununguko murume uye mugari haafaniri kuputsa kodzero uye rusununguko zvevamwe."
• Disjunction (avb - kupatsanura kutonga). Sezvo constituent zvinhu chekutonga-clauses inoshandiswa senzvimbo bhainda - pachiimbwa "kana". Somuenzaniso: "The mukwiriri ane kodzero kuwedzera kana kuderera kukura kutaura."
• Zvairehwa (a → b - mutongo-kushanda). Kana Posting iri dzinounzwa marongerwo kuoma mutongo uye somugumisiro, zvaigona angapokana kuti kutonga kwakadaro chokuita implicative. Sezvo bhainda rakashandiswa muchimiro shamwari dzakadai se "kana ... zvino". Somuenzaniso: "Kana kuburikidza muitisi kusuwa remagetsi, kuti waya rinopisa kumusoro," "Unoda kuti ufare - kufara".
• Yokuenzana (a ≡ b - fanana mutongo). Zvinotora nzvimbo panyaya apo tsika ane uye, b ndiwo chete (kana vaviri chokwadi kana vaviri nhema): "Munhu akasikwa kuti mufaro, seshiri kubhururuka."
• Negation (¬a, A - mutongo-inversion). Mumwe bhuku Rinobatanidzwa ne okuti mukomboni mashoko anoramba yepakutanga. Nokushandisa "kwete" boka. Saizvozvowo, kana chepakutanga mashoko sezvinotevera: "The nzombe ikasakendenga chiedza dzvuku," (a) - iri kuramba kuti unorira: "The nzombe haateereri chiedza dzvuku" (¬A).