Nhoroondo makemikari kemisitiri. Nyaya uye kukosha Organic Chemistry

vanhu vashomanana nezvezvatakaitirwa ndiyo basa makemikari kemisitiri muupenyu murume ano. Asi chikuru, zvakaoma kuona. Mangwanani, apo munhu anomuka uye anoenda kugeza, uye tsime mukati manheru, kana anoenda kunorara, iye akaramba kuenda zvibereko makemikari kemisitiri. Chikwesheso, zvipfeko, bepa, zvizoro, fenicha uye mukati design, uye zvakawanda - izvi zvose anotipa nayo. Asi kamwe zvakanga zvisina kudaro, uye pamusoro makemikari kemisitiri kuziva zvishomanana.

Ngationei kuti vakashanduka danho nedanho nhoroondo makemikari kemisitiri.

1. Nguva kukura kusvikira XIV remakore, inonzi rwechiIsraeri.

2. XV - XVII remakore - kutanga kukura kana iatrochemistry alchemy.

3. Century XVIII - XIX - the kutonga pakati dzidziso vitalism.

4. XIX - XX remakore - ndichibvunza kukura, Danho nesayenzi.

Tanga kana dzinongozviitikira chokutambudzika pave makemikari kemisitiri

danho iri une chairo kwaita pfungwa kwemakemikari mavambo. Uye kwakatangira agure shure sezvo Rome yekare uye neIjipiti, izvo vagari vaikwanisa vakadzidza kuti madhayi kuti coloring zvinhu uye hembe kubva dzinongoitika mbishi zvinhu - mashizha madzinde zvinomera. Ava ndivo vaiva indigo, achipa zvitema rakadzika ruvara, uye alizorin staining chaizvoizvo zvose manune uye anokwezva noruvara Orange uye tsvuku. Outsinye nimble vagari vemarudzi akasiyana iyoyo akadzidzawo sei kuwana vhiniga, kuti mweya kubva sucrose uye starch tubhokisi zvinhu zviri chirimwa mavambo.

Zvinozivikanwa kuti zvokudya nevakawanda zvikuru kushanda ichi nhoroondo nguva vaiva mafuta mhuka, miriwo mafuta uye Inogadzirwa nemasiridzi anobuda mumiti zvinoshandiswa nevanhu chef uye vanorapa. Uyewo muupenyu chepfu siyana zvaiva zvakasimba sezvo chombo chikuru vnutriusobnyh ukama. All izvi zvinhu zviri zvibereko makemikari kemisitiri.

Asi, zvinosuruvarisa yakadaro, pfungwa "kemisitiri" hakuwaniki, uye kudzidza zvimwe zvinhu kuitira kuti kujekesa zvivako uye nziyo hazvina kuitika. Saka, iyi anonzi kwatangwa. Zvavakawana All vakanga asingashumbi, unfocused kunoita nevatengi tsika. Izvi zvakaramba kusvikira rinotevera remakore.

iatrochemistry kumwedzi - aizobudirira kutanga kukura

Zvechokwadi, akanga ari XVI - XVII emakore vakatanga kubuda zvakananga mifananidzo kemisitiri sechinhu sainzi. Kuburikidza nebasa masayendisiti imwe nguva akawana Organic zvinhu yakaitwa nyore midziyo nokuda DISTILLATION uye sublimation kuti zvinhu zvinoshandiswa rinokosha namakemikari midziyo kupwanya zvinhu kuti kuparadzana dzinongoitika zvigadzirwa ingredients.

Chikuru muupenyu iyoyo aiva mushonga. Chido kuwana mishonga zvakafanira zvakakonzera chokwadi chokuti chirimwa akamira zvinokosha anonhuwirira uye dzimwe mbishi ingredients. Saka, Karl Scheele avapo dzinoverengeka Organic acids kubva muriwo mbishi zvinhu:

• malic;
• ndimu;
• gallic;
• mukaka;
• oxalic.

On pakudzidza miti uye hurumende ichiisa izvi acids musayendisiti akatora makore 16 (1769 kusvika 1785). Iri raiva mavambo okukura, nheyo makemikari kemisitiri, riri zvakananga sezvo bazi wekemisitiri rakazivikanwa uye zita papera (mangwanani XVIII remakore).

Munguva imwe chete Middle GF pachena Rueil crystals ose uric asidhi kubva urea. Other mishonga succinic asidhi rwaiwanikwa kubva rinopenya, tartaric acid. Zvakafanana Kushandisa rinosanganisira nzira akaoma DISTILLATION zvinomera nemhuka zvokuvakisa, naro inotengwa acetic acid, diethyl Eteri, matanda doro.

Saka vakatanga ndichibvunza kukura makemikari namakemikari indasitiri mune ramangwana.

Vis vaVitalis, kana "simba upenyu"

XVIII - XIX remakore kuti makemikari kemisitiri zvikuru zviviri-ukagunzva: rumwe rutivi, kune vakawanda zvakawanwa kuti zvikuru kukosha. Kune vamwe, nguva refu, kukura uye kuunganidza akakodzera ruzivo uye zvakarurama pfungwa hwakaipa chikuru dzidziso vitalism.

Dzidziso iyi sezvaari uye akataura chikuru Jens Jakobs Berzelius, uyo panguva iyoyo iye akapa, uye tsanangudzo makemikari kemisitiri (gore chaiyo haizivikanwi, kana 1807 kana 1808). Maererano zvokudya pfungwa iyi, makemikari zvinhu zvinogona aumbwa chete zvipenyu (zvinomera nemhuka, kusanganisira vanhu), sezvo chete zvipenyu vane "upenyu simba" unokosha unobvumira zvinhu izvi akabudiswa. Nepo inorganic zvinhu kuwana Organic zvachose zvisingabviri, sezvo vari zvigadzirwa zvisina upenyu, dzisiri zvinobata moto, pasina Nya vaVitalis.

Masayendisiti chete kupatsanura kutanga anozivikanwa panguva yacho yeimwe iri inorganic (non-vapenyu, zvose zvinhu semvura uye munyu) uye Organic (live, avo kuti kufanana mafuta omuorivhi shuga) yave zvinenge zvanzi zviitwe. Uyewo Berzelius rokutanga akasarudzwa zvakananga kuti makemikari kemisitiri kwakadaro. Kutsunga kwakanga: chikamu wekemisitiri kuti vanodzidza zvinhu zvinobva zvipenyu.

Panguva iyi, masayendisiti nyore chinozoiswa kutendeutsa Organic yeimwe kupinda inorganic, semuenzaniso, kubudikidza combustion. Zvisinei, mukana reconversion chinhu chakazozikamwa asi.

Fate aizofanira nayo, kuti zvakanga mudzidzi Jens Berzelius Fridrih Veler vakabatsira kutanga pokuwa dzidziso mudzidzisi wake.

musayendisiti German kushanda cyanide yeimwe uye mune imwe kuedza kuitwa kuti vawane crystals Rinotarisira Similar kune uric acid. Somugumisiro, mumwe kupfuura kunyatsodzidza akawana kuti chaizvoizvo kuendesa makemikari nyaya kubva inorganic, pasina chinhu Nya vaVitalis. Hazvinei kuti chokwadi Berzelius, akamanikidzwa kubvuma ichi chisingarambiki chokwadi. Saka yakanga akaitira nokurohwa yokutanga vitalistic maonero. Nhoroondo makemikari kemisitiri vakatanga kuwana tichimhanya.

Hunoverengeka matongo, akapwanyika vitalism

Wohler kubudirira kwakaita akafuridzirwa mishonga yacho XVIII remakore, saka akatanga yokuedzwa kwakapararira uye kuedza kuti vawane makemikari nyaya ezvokunambira kunze kwomuviri waamai. Syntheses kwakadaro kuti vari dzinonetsa uye kukosha akawanda.

1. 1845 G. - Adolf Kolbe waiva mudzidzi Wohler, Rinotarisira nyore Inorganics C, H _2, O ₂ multistage zvachose kwetunhu kuwana acetic acid, kuri makemikari zvinhu.
2. 1812, Konstantinom Kirhgofom chinozoiswa shuga usage kubva starch uye acid.
3. 1820 Anri Brakonno denatured mapuroteni asidhi uye kubatwa nitric asidhi uye musanganiswa akawana kubva pakutanga 20 amino acids synthesized papera - glycine.
4. 1809 Michel Chevreul akadzidza anoumba kwemafuta, achiedza rakatsemuka muvira ayo constituent zvinoriumba. Somugumisiro, akagamuchira mafuta acids uye glycerol. 1854, Zhan Bertlo akaramba kushanda Chevrel glycerol uye nenharo pamwe stearic acid. Result - mafuta, chaizvo anodzokorora maumbirwo dzinongoitika yeimwe. Gare gare, akakwanisa kuwana nemamwe mafuta uye mafuta, iyo yakanga siyanei mune samolecular chivako kubva dzinongoitika analogues. Kuti chinoratidzwa mukana yokuwana itsva yeimwe Organic zvikuru murabhoritari.
5. J. Berthelot synthesized methane kubva rehydrogen sulfide (H ₂ S) uye kabhoni disulfide (CS _2).
6. 1842 Zinin akakwanisa synthesize ari aniline kubva nitrobenzene dhayi. Gare gare iye akakwanisa zvinoverengeka aniline madhayi.
7. A. Bayer anosika pachake rabhoritari kwayo, izvo zvave achishanda uye vabudirire kwetunhu Organic madhayi, zvakafanana dzinongoitika: alizarin, indigoid, antrohinonovye, xanthene.
8. 1846 kwetunhu nitroglycerin masayendisiti Sobrero. Naiyewo akatanga dzidziso mifananidzo, iyo inoti kuti zvinhu zvakafanana zvimwe inorganic uye anogona kugadzirira nokutsiva rehydrogen maatomu marongerwo.
9. 1861 A. M. Butlerov synthesized shuga kuti formalin. Vakanga akagadzira pedyo zvokudya dzidziso kwemakemikari maumbirwo Organic yeimwe kuhupenyu nhasi.

Zvakawanikwa zvose izvi kuziva nyaya makemikari kemisitiri - kabhoni uye ayo yeimwe. Uyezve Zvakawanikwa nezvezvakanaka zvigadziriswe nemakemikari mu makemikari kemisitiri, kuti chigaro hunhu zvigadzirwa mukukurukurirana, uye kuti nemamiriro yeimwe.

Chechipiri hafu XIX uye XX remakore - nguva yose namakemikari zvakawanwa

Nhoroondo makemikari kemisitiri pamusoro nguva kwave kuchiita guru zvose kuchinja pasi. Shanda masayendisiti akawanda pamusoro zvigadziriswe yomunyika urongwa mu mamorekuru, siyana uye hurongwa pakabereka zvibereko zvabuda. Saka, muna 1857, Friedrich Kekule yakatanga dzidziso Valencia. Asiwo ndohwaJehovha guru munorumbidzirweiko - kuwanikwa nemamiriro ose mamorekuru ari anonhuhwirira yeHydrocarbon benzene. Panguva iyoyowo A. M. Butlerov akagadzira dzidziso nemamiriro chinzvimbo yeimwe mu panotaura kabhoni tetravalence uye Chiitiko ariko isomers, uye isomers.

VV Markovnikov uye A. M. Zaytsev yakawanda yokunyatsoongorora kudzidza kuita zvigadziriswe munyika makemikari nyaya uye kuronga mitemo kuti atsanangure zvigadziriswe izvi uye zvinosimbisa. Muna 1873 - 1875 makore. I. Wislicenus, Van't Hoff uye Le Bel kudzidza spatial urongwa kwemaatomu ari mamorekuru, zvinoratidza kuvapo redhiyo-isomers, uye tiri madzitateguru sayenzi yose - Stereochemistry. Vanhu vazhinji siyana mukusika romunda makemikari kemisitiri, izvo isu nhasi. Naizvozvo, makemikari kemisitiri, masayendisiti zvinokosha.

Mugumo XIX uye XX remakore - nguva yose kuwana mu neindasitiri inogadzira mishonga, pendi maindasitiri, quantum kemisitiri. Funga buri, kuti nechokwadi kunonyanyisa ukoshi makemikari kemisitiri.

1. 1881 Conrad M. uye M. Gudtseyt synthesized dzokutindivadza, veronal uye salicylic acid.
2. 1883 L. Knorr vakagamuchira antipyrine.
3. 1884 F. Stoll pavakarambana pyramidon.
4. 1869 Hyatt hama akahwina rokutanga internet nomunhu.
5. 1884 D. Eastman synthesized celluloid firimu.
6. 1890 vakagamuchira cuprammonium faibha L. Depassi.
7. 1891 Charles Cross nevamwe vake pavakarambana rayon.
8. 1897 F. Miescher uye Buchner akavamba dzidziso chaivo oxidation (sero-isina chinovira yakawanikwa uye makemikari sezvo biocatalysts).
9. 1897 F. Miescher yakawanikwa nucleic acids.
10. Pakutanga XX remakore - the kemisitiri itsva organometallic yeimwe.
11. 1917 Lewis akazarura electronic hunhu kwemakemikari zvisungo zviri mamorekuru.
12. 1931 Hückel - muvambi quantum zvigadziriswe mu kemisitiri.
13. Of 1931-1933. Laymus Pauling anoruramisa resonance dzidziso, uye gare gare ake co-vashandi dzinoratidza musimboti nezvemaitiro nemakemikari.
14. 1936 zvinhu zvenaironi synthesized.
15. Of 1930-1940. Kwavatumwa Arbuzov tibvunze kuti budiriro Organophosphorus yeimwe inova hwaro pagadzirwe mapurasitiki, Pharmaceuticals, uye zvipembenene.
16. 1960 Academician Nesmeyanov nevadzidzi akasika zvokudya chakaita zvokugadzirwa vokutanga murabhoritari.
17. 1963 Du Vinho kugamuchira jekiseni, ndiro rakakura danho mukurapa.
18. 1968 Indian HG Korani akakwanisa kuwana nyore Gene chakabatsira mu achiongorora zvaive majini remitemo.

Saka, kukosha makemikari kemisitiri muupenyu hwevanhu nyore huru. Mapurasitiki, Polymers, fibers, pendi uye varnishes, rabha, rabha, PVC zvinhu, polypropylene uye polyethylene, uye vazhinji nevamwe ano zvinhu, pasina iro nhasi hadzisi zvinoita upenyu, kunzwisisa nzira kuna chichikosha. Mazana masayendisiti akaita makore avo basa rakaoma, saka paiva mukuru nhoroondo kukura makemikari kemisitiri.

The ano Tsika Organic yeimwe

Maita chinhu chikuru uye chakaoma nzira pave makemikari kemisitiri, uye ikozvino haamiri achiri. Kune zvinopfuura 10 Mill. Connections, uye nhamba iri kuwedzera ose gore. Naizvozvo, pane hurongwa urongwa maumbirwo zvinhu kuti anotipa makemikari kemisitiri. Kupatsanura pakati Organic yeimwe anoratidzwa mune tafura.

The boka yeimwe	STRUCTURAL zvinhu	The vakawanda fomura
Mahydrocarbon (anoumbwa chete kabhoni uye rehydrogen maatomu)	yakazara (chete Sigma kunyorerana.); unsaturated (Sigma uye Pi kukurukura.); acyclic; cyclic.	Alkanes C N H 2n + 2; Alkenes, cycloalkanes C N H 2n; Alkynes, alkadienes, C N H 2n-2; Arena C 6 H 2n-6.
Zvinhu ane zvakasiyana hetero maatomu ari huru boka	halogens; OH boka (alcohols uye phenols); muzvikwata zvisina tsarukano ROR (ethers).	R-Hal; R-OH; ROR.
carbonyl yeimwe	aldehydes; ketones; quinones.	RC (H) = O
Compounds ine carboxyl boka	carboxylic asidhi; esters.	R-COOH; R-COOR.
Compounds ine sarufa, senitrogen kana phosphorus iri Morekuru	Inogona cyclic kana acyclic	-
organometallic yeimwe	Carbon waakaita zvakananga mumwe chinhu, asi kwete rehydrogen	C-E
organometallic yeimwe	Carbon waakaita kuti simbi	With-Me
heterocyclic yeimwe	In mamiriro-inobva kutenderera nenhengo heteroatoms	-
dzinongoitika zvinhu	Large polymer mamorekuru anoumba dzinongoitika yeimwe	mapuroteni, nucleic acids, amino acids, alkaloids uye zvakafanana. d.
Polymers	Zvinhu kuva mukuru samolecular uremu, izvo kwakavakirwa monomeric dzakabatana	N (-RRR-)

Kudzidza yose siyana zvinhu uye siyana umo vachipinda uye ndiyo nyaya makemikari kemisitiri nhasi.

Types kwemakemikari zvisungo mu Organic zvinhu

Nokuti chero yeimwe dzinoratidzwa elektronnostaticheskie aiita mukati mamorekuru, varehwa pamberi organics covalent polar uye non-polar covalent zvisungo. The organometallic yeimwe anogona kuumba simba Ionic kudyidzana.

Covalent nonpolar kukurukurirana kuitika pakati C-C kuburikidza zvokuverengera zvose Organic mamorekuru. Covalent polar kwavatori mamirire zvakasiyana-nonmetal maatomu ari Morekuru. Somuenzaniso, C-Hal, CH, CO, CN, CP, CS. Izvi zvose nokuda makemikari kemisitiri, izvo kutsivana paumbwe yeimwe.

Variations ari yeimwe ari Masvomhu organics

Rakajairika zvokuimba kuti nhamba nhengo remubatanidzwa rinonzi empirical. Masvomhu kwakadaro kutsivana nechimwe inorganic fuma. Asi kana asvika vaigadzirira zvokuimba makemikari kemisitiri, masayendisiti aifanira nematambudziko akawanda. Chekutanga, uremu vazhinji vavo, vamazana, kana kunyange zviuru. Zvakaoma kuziva kuti empirical payakavakirwa kuti yakakura fuma yakadaro. Saka, vane nguva paiva partition kuti makemikari kemisitiri sezvo makemikari kuongorora. havaoni Its vaiona Vanotsvakurudza Liebig, Wohler, Gay-Lussac uye Berzelius. Ivo, pamwe chete nemabasa A. M. Butlerova, akaratidza kuti kuvapo isomers - yeimwe zvakafanana Qualitative uye quantitative sezvamunoita, asi zvisingapindirani marongerwo uye zvivako zviri Morekuru. Ndokusaka maumbirwo Organic yeimwe vakaratidza nhasi haisi empirical uye STRUCTURAL kwakakwana kana yaiitwa yakapfupikiswa STRUCTURAL payakavakirwa.

zvivako izvi - maitiro uye nevamwe chinoratidza inova makemikari kemisitiri. The Masvomhu zvakanyorwa kushandisa dashes, ndiyo makemikari chisungo. semuenzaniso, butane yaiitwa yakapfupikiswa STRUCTURAL payakavakirwa achava akadini CH ₃ - CH ₂ - CH ₂ - CH _3. Full STRUCTURAL payakavakirwa kuratidza zvose makemikari zvisungo vaivapo muna Morekuru.

Uyewo pane nzira pakunyora samolecular zvokuimba kuti makemikari yeimwe. Anotarira kwakafanana empirical kubva inorganic. Nokuti butane Somuenzaniso, ichava: C ₄ H _10. Kureva samolecular payakavakirwa zvinopa pfungwa chete pamusoro Qualitative uye quantitative Zvinoumba mukomboni. Structural munguva chisungo iri Morekuru, saka dzinogona kushandiswa kufanotaura nezveramangwana maitiro uye namakemikari zvivako zviri pfuma. Ndivo zvinhu ine makemikari kemisitiri. Masvomhu zvakanyorwa chero chimiro, mumwe nomumwe wavo ichokwadi.

Types wanda vari makemikari kemisitiri

Pane mumwe kupatsanura pakati mhando makemikari kemisitiri siyana kuitika. Uye vamwe classifications izvi, musi dzakasiyana zvikonzero. Funga zvihombe.

Zvigadziriswe nemakemikari iri nzira pakumedura uye chisungo inotungamirwa:

• kana homolytic kukuru;
• heterolytic kana Ionic.

Zvinoitwa Mhando transformations:

• cheni kukuru;
• nucleophilic aliphatic kuzvitsinhanisa;
• nucleophilic inonhuwirira kuzvitsinhanisa;
• kubviswa kuita;
• electrophilic Kuwedzera;
• condensation;
• cyclization;
• electrophilic kuzvitsinhanisa;
• rearrangement kuita.

By nzira run kuita (kudzidziswa) uye pamusoro kinetic hurongwa nemapinduriro chiri dzimwe nguva muboka. Ndivo dzinokosha zvinhu zvinoitwa ine makemikari kemisitiri. Fungidziro unorondedzera mashoko neimwe nzira makemikari maitiro, wakashamira ari pakati XX remakore, uye akasimbisa uye vaisanganisa vachiri mutsva Kuwanika ose uye kwetunhu.

Zvinofanira kucherechedzwa kuti mukuru makemikari kemisitiri siyana mberi pasi zvikuru inoomesera ezvinhu kupfuura inorganic kemisitiri. Izvi imhaka mukuru Kudzikamiswa kuti makemikari mamorekuru yakafanira kuti paumbwe mukati uye simba intermolecular linkages. Naizvozvo, anenge asina kuita zvakakwana pasina nokumutsa tembiricha, kumanikidzwa kana kushanda nokuva gombedzero.

The ano tsanangudzo Organic Chemistry

Kazhinji, kuvandudzwa makemikari kemisitiri mberi ane ndichibvunza nzira kwemazana emakore anoverengeka. It vaunganidza ane mashoko akawandisa pamusoro zvinhu, avo zvivako uye nezviito umo vanogona kujoina. Synthesized mamiriyoni anobatsira uye aifanira mbishi zvakashandiswa muminda nesayenzi, ruzivo uye indasitiri siyana. Pfungwa makemikari kemisitiri nhasi kunonzwisiswa sechinhu chikuru uye yakakura, vakawanda uye kunzwisisa, siyana uye chinokosha.

Panguva iyoyo, tsanangudzo muchikamu chikuru ichi wekemisitiri chokutanga kwaiva chii akapa Berzelius: zviri kemisitiri kuti vanodzidza zvinhu kure zvinenge. Kubvira ipapo, nguva yakawanda yakapfuura, zvinhu zvakawanda, uye akaona, akadura vazhinji pezvakaitwa vnutrihimicheskih zvigadziriswe. Somugumisiro, nhasi pane zvakasiyana pfungwa izvo makemikari kemisitiri. Kutsunga kwakapiwa: carbon kemisitiri uye aro yeimwe, uye nzira dzavo kwetunhu.